Learning Objectives
- Understand how the British established control over the countryside
- Learn about different land revenue systems introduced by the British
- Study the impact of British policies on peasants, artisans, and the rural economy
- Understand the indigo rebellion and its significance
Key Concepts
Revenue Systems Introduced by the British
The British needed revenue to maintain their administration and army. They introduced different revenue systems in different parts of India:
Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal and Bihar. Under this system, zamindars (landlords) were recognised as owners of the land. They had to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the Company. The amount was fixed permanently and would not increase. If zamindars failed to pay, their land could be auctioned. This system made zamindars powerful but did not benefit the actual cultivators (peasants).
Mahalwari System (1822): Introduced by Holt Mackenzie in North-West Provinces, parts of Central India, and Punjab. Revenue was collected from the entire mahal (village) rather than from individual zamindars. The village headman was responsible for collection. Revenue was not fixed permanently — it was revised periodically.
Ryotwari System (1820): Introduced by Thomas Munro in Madras and Bombay Presidencies. Revenue was collected directly from the ryot (peasant/cultivator). Each peasant was recognised as the owner of their land. Revenue rates were high and had to be paid regardless of harvest conditions, which often pushed peasants into debt.
The Indigo Rebellion
European planters forced Indian peasants to grow indigo (neel) on their lands under the tinkathia system — peasants had to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land. The planters paid very low prices for indigo and used violence and coercion against peasants who refused. In 1859-60, peasants in Bengal revolted against indigo planters. They refused to grow indigo and attacked indigo factories. This is known as the Indigo Rebellion (Neel Darpan movement). The revolt forced the government to set up an Indigo Commission that ruled in favour of the peasants.
Impact on the Rural Economy
British policies devastated the Indian rural economy:
1. High revenue demands pushed peasants into poverty and debt.
2. The shift to cash crops (indigo, cotton, opium) reduced food grain production.
3. Indian handicrafts and cottage industries were destroyed by cheap British machine-made goods.
4. Famines became more frequent due to commercialisation of agriculture and neglect of food production.
Summary
The British introduced three main land revenue systems: Permanent Settlement (zamindari), Mahalwari, and Ryotwari. All systems aimed to maximise revenue for the Company, often at the expense of cultivators. Forced cultivation of cash crops like indigo led to the Indigo Rebellion of 1859-60. British policies disrupted the traditional rural economy, causing widespread poverty, indebtedness, and famines.
Important Terms
- Permanent Settlement
- System where zamindars paid fixed revenue to the Company
- Mahalwari System
- Revenue collected from the village as a whole
- Ryotwari System
- Revenue collected directly from individual cultivators
- Zamindar
- Landlord recognised as land owner under the Permanent Settlement
- Ryot
- Peasant or cultivator who directly tills the land
- Indigo Rebellion
- 1859-60 peasant revolt against forced indigo cultivation in Bengal
- Tinkathia System
- System requiring peasants to grow indigo on 3/20th of their land
Quick Revision
- Permanent Settlement (1793) by Cornwallis in Bengal — fixed revenue, zamindars as owners
- Mahalwari System (1822) by Holt Mackenzie — village-level collection, periodically revised
- Ryotwari System (1820) by Thomas Munro — direct collection from peasants
- Indigo Rebellion (1859-60) against forced indigo cultivation
- Tinkathia system = 3/20th of land for indigo
- British policies led to poverty, debt, and famines in rural India
Practice Tips
- Compare the three land revenue systems in a table: who introduced, where, how revenue was collected, effect on peasants
- Understand the causes, events, and results of the Indigo Rebellion
- Explain how commercialisation of agriculture affected food production