Learning Objectives
- Understand the concept of nationalism and nation-states in Europe
- Learn about the French Revolution and its role in spreading nationalism
- Study the unification of Germany and Italy
- Understand how nationalism shaped Europe in the 19th century
Key Concepts
The French Revolution and Nationalism
The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism. It transferred sovereignty from the monarchy to the French citizens. Key measures included: creation of a new French flag (tricolour), a new national anthem (La Marseillaise), centralised administration, uniform laws, abolition of internal customs, and a common system of weights and measures. French became the common language. These steps created a sense of collective identity among the French people.
Napoleon Bonaparte spread nationalism across Europe through his conquests. The Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804) abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before law, secured the right to property, and simplified administrative divisions. However, Napoleon's rule also meant increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription, leading to resentment in conquered territories.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Before the 19th century, Europe was divided into kingdoms, duchies, and empires with diverse peoples. There were no "nation-states". Nationalism introduced the idea that people sharing a common language, history, and culture constitute a nation and should have their own state.
Liberalism: Derived from the Latin word "liber" (free). Liberals stood for individual freedom, equality before law, government by consent, end of aristocratic privilege, and a constitution. Economic liberalism meant freedom of markets, abolition of trade barriers, and a unified economic territory. The German Zollverein (1834) abolished tariff barriers among German states and created a unified economic area.
Conservatism: After Napoleon's defeat, conservatives sought to restore the old order at the Congress of Vienna (1815), led by Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich. The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France. However, conservatives also accepted modernisation for strengthening the state — efficient bureaucracy, a modern army, and a dynamic economy.
Revolutions of 1830 and 1848
The July Revolution of 1830 in France overthrew the Bourbon king Charles X and established a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe. It inspired revolts in Belgium (which gained independence from the Netherlands), Poland, and Italian states.
The Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe — France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary. In France, Louis Philippe was overthrown and a republic was established. In the German states, liberals met at the Frankfurt Parliament in the Church of St. Paul to draft a constitution for a united Germany. However, the parliament failed because the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the crown, and the assembly was dominated by the middle class without support from workers and peasants.
Unification of Germany
Germany was unified through a policy of "blood and iron" under Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck and Prussian King Wilhelm I. Prussia fought three wars over seven years:
1. War with Denmark (1864) — Schleswig was won.
2. War with Austria (1866) — Austria was defeated at the Battle of Sadowa.
3. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) — France was defeated. The German Empire was proclaimed at the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles on 18 January 1871. Wilhelm I was declared Kaiser (Emperor).
The new German state emphasised modernisation of currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems. Prussian dominance was established with its army, bureaucracy, and authoritarian methods.
Unification of Italy
Italy was divided into seven states in the mid-19th century. Giuseppe Mazzini founded two secret societies — Young Italy and Young Europe — and believed in democratic republicanism. However, his uprisings failed. Count Camillo di Cavour, Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, led the diplomatic and military unification. He allied with France under Napoleon III and defeated Austria in 1859. Giuseppe Garibaldi led his volunteer army of Red Shirts to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (southern Italy) in 1860. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was declared King of united Italy. Venetia was added in 1866 and the Papal States (Rome) in 1870.
Nationalism and Imperialism
By the late 19th century, nationalism became increasingly associated with imperialism. The Balkans became a source of intense rivalry among European powers. Slavic nationalism, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and competition among Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Britain made the region volatile. These tensions ultimately led to World War I (1914).
Summary
Nationalism emerged in Europe through the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Liberals sought freedom, equality, and constitutional government, while conservatives sought to maintain the old order. Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 spread nationalist and liberal ideas. Germany was unified under Bismarck through wars, and Italy was unified through the efforts of Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi. By the late 19th century, nationalism fuelled imperialism and rivalries that led to World War I.
Important Terms
- Nation-state
- A state where the majority of citizens share a common identity and culture
- Liberalism
- Ideology advocating individual freedom, equality before law, and constitutional government
- Conservatism
- Ideology favouring preservation of traditional institutions and gradual change
- Zollverein
- Customs union of German states formed in 1834 to abolish tariff barriers
- Plebiscite
- A direct vote by the people of a region to decide a political question
- Allegory
- Expression of abstract ideas through a person or symbol (e.g., Marianne for France, Germania for Germany)
Quick Revision
- French Revolution (1789) = first expression of nationalism; sovereignty to citizens
- Napoleonic Code (1804) = equality before law, abolished birth privileges
- Congress of Vienna (1815) = conservatives restored old monarchies
- Zollverein (1834) = German customs union
- Germany unified: 1871 under Bismarck; proclaimed at Versailles
- Italy unified: 1861; Mazzini (ideas), Cavour (diplomacy), Garibaldi (military)
- Balkans = powder keg of Europe; led to WWI
Practice Tips
- Create a comparative timeline for German and Italian unification
- Know the roles of Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi distinctly
- Practise map questions: mark German Empire, Italian states, Balkans
- Understand the difference between liberalism and conservatism for 3-mark answers